The largest bone in the skeleton of the human foot

Raw seaweed contains 120 mg of magnesium; dried seaweed contains slightly less – 107 mg. Like quinoa, sea kale is also biologically valuable: it contains all B vitamins, large amounts of calcium and vitamin C.

Human Skeleton Names of Bones, Types of Bones, Structure of Human Skull with Description, Functions of Skeleton, Largest, Longest Bones, Skeleton of Foot, Hand

The role of the human skeleton is to protect and support the internal organs, particularly those in the skull, rib cage and pelvic area. Connected by joints, the bones form a system of levers to which the skeletal muscles that provide movement are attached. It is also the red bone marrow that ensures hematopoiesis, that is, the formation of blood cells. In many places the bone base is supplemented by cartilage.

The entire skeleton is divided into the axial skeleton (skull and torso) and the accessory skeleton (limb girdle, limbs and eardrum bones). The adult human skeleton consists of 205-207 bones. Based on their structure, bones are divided into the following types:

• Long bones. They form the limbs. They act as levers for body movements.
• Short long bones. Metatarsals and metacarpals. They are made of spongy bone tissue covered by a thin layer of compact matter that gives them strength yet lightness. These properties are essential because of the stress placed on them.
• Flat. Consists of a layer of spongy substance sandwiched between two layers of compacted matter. The skull, ribs, shoulder blades and pelvic bones are arranged in a similar manner. These bones are also characterized by large areas of muscle attachments.
• Mixed bones. These include the vertebrae and some skull bones. They are characterized by an unusual structure that prevents them from being assigned to other types.
• Sesamoid. Arises in muscle tendons and is found near joints. An example is the kneecap.

The cells of bone tissue are called osteocytes.

In addition to organic substances, bones also contain the mineral salts potassium, magnesium, phosphorus and calcium. The latter give the bones their elasticity. If water is removed from the bone, it breaks down; if the salts are washed away, it becomes so elastic that it can be tied into a knot.

bones of the skull

The structure of the skull is divided into two main parts: the braincase and the facial skull. The former includes (Figure 1):

• The temporal bone. It is formed by the scale and stone bones and is paired.
• Dark bones. Forms the side walls of the skull and its roof. The inner surface is speckled with grooves for blood vessels. Paired.
• Occipital bone. Limits the inside of the skull backwards and downwards. Has an opening through which the medulla oblongata passes into the spinal cord. Inseparable.
• Frontal. Forms the cranial vault and the upper wall of the eye socket. Not segmental.
• Wedge-shaped. Located at the base of the skull and forming most of the middle cranial fossa. On the top there is the so-called Turkish saddle, in which the pituitary gland rests. Separated.
• nodules. The air leg. Separated.

Important: All bones of the skull are connected to each other by sutures. However, at birth some of the sutures are not yet formed and form openings called fontanelles.

• Paired nasal bones;
• 2 bones of the palate – form the palate surface;
• 2 Lacrimal bones – form the tear duct;
• paired zygomatic bones;
• Cochlea – Participates in the formation of the lower nasal septum (inferior septum);
• Lower nose plug;
• 2 jaws.

Fig. 2 Bones of the face

The so-called hyoid bone is also worth mentioning. It is the only example of a floating bone in the human body, that is, a bone that is not connected to other bones. It serves as an attachment point for the tongue muscles and also leaves the windpipe open.

Do newborns have more bones?

The adult body consists of more than 200 bones with a total weight of about 5-6 kg, which is about 8-15 % of the total body weight. Some sources say that newborns have an order of magnitude more bones compared to adults. According to various sources, the difference is about 70-90 bones. Where do the extra bones come from and, most importantly, where do they go?

The question is actually quite simple. The skeleton of a newborn and an adult is actually different. Some of the bones of a newborn are similar in structure to cartilage, but as they grow, they ossify and fuse together. A good example of this are the bones of the skull.

Every mother knows the fontanelle. As the baby grows, the fontanelles close and the bones fuse together. However, it is incorrect to say that the fused bones have become one. An adult's skull consists of 29 bones, like a newborn's.

The claim that newborns have more bones than adults due to the body's adaptability is simply a fallacy in reasoning, and the skull cannot be considered a single bone, no matter how complete it may appear.

And God created woman.

The story of the creation of the world, Adam and Eve, gave rise to one of the most common and romantic misunderstandings: men have fewer ribs.

So God created a man – Adam. The material of creation remained a mystery. After a while, the Creator realized that something was missing. And for Adam's happiness a couple was needed. The material for making the pair was not available to the Almighty as he needed everything to create his likeness, so he had to improvise. Eve was created from Adam's rib. And further – the story is known to everyone.

Based on this rib story, some have come to believe that men and women have different numbers of ribs, that is, the number of bones in a man and a woman is different.

In fact, this belief is fundamentally wrong. Both males and females have 12 pairs of ribs, although there is indeed a difference between the male and female skeletons. Anthropologists could easily find it and determine who the skeleton belonged to based on numerous features and traces not visible to laypeople.

What is the main difference between male and female ribs? These are the so-called free pairs of ribs. In men the 'loose' pairs of ribs are larger, wider and appear to protrude, while in women they are less pronounced. Perhaps it is for these reasons that this misunderstanding arose.

Also, the fact that there is an additional rib that may not have a pair may support such a claim. Such a peculiarity could not be better justified by the lack of a rib in the male animals, since it must have been used up when the first female animals were created. According to some reports, the presence of an extra rib is not all that unusual.

This is due to abnormal fetal development. Cervical ribs can arise as a result of negative factors affecting the fetus, most often at the level of cervical vertebrae VII - VIII. In clinical practice, both complete and incomplete cervical ribs can occur. With a complete rib it connects to the first rib, with an incomplete one the free edge ends in the soft tissues.

What types of bones are there?

There are long, wide and short bones. Long bones – Are the bones of the limbs. These long bones have a cylindrical middle part and two ends that are connected to other bones via joints. The broad bones form the walls of the cavities that protect the internal organs: skull, thorax, pelvis. Short bones are usually irregularly rounded or polygonal: vertebrae, wrists and ankles.

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The outer part of the bone is called periosteum. This is a thin but very dense layer that contains the nerves and blood vessels that supply the bone. The dense bone substance – is very smooth and heavy. It is most pronounced in the middle part of the long bones. Spongy bone substance consists of thin lamellae that are connected to each other and form many cavities. The heads of the bones are made of this substance. It also fills the cavities in flat bones such as the ribs. The internal cavities of the bone are lined through the bone marrow. Yellow or fatty bone marrow is the most common and is most commonly found in long bones. Flat bones are dominated by red bone marrow, which produces new blood cells for the body.

What is bone tissue made of?

The skeleton consists of bones Collagen fibersThese fibers are impregnated with minerals. These fibers are arranged in longitudinal and transverse layers, forming lamellae between which bone cells are located Osteocytes..

The bones are subject to constant change: new cells are formed and old cells are broken down. When a person is young, their body produces new bone tissue faster than old ones are broken down. This increases the Bone mass. Most people reach their maximum bone mass by age 30 years of life.. As we age, bone formation continues, but more slowly than loss. The more bone mass accumulated at a young agethe slower their breakdown - the development of osteoporosis.

How can you determine your body type?

Measure the circumference of your wrist with a tape measure - even overweight people have little or no fat stored there. You can determine which body type you belong to based on your measurements:

asthenic – less than 15 centimeters at the wrist in women and less than 18 centimeters in men.

Normosthenic – Wrist circumference between 15 and 17 centimeters for women and between 18 and 20 centimeters for men.

Hypersthenic – Wrist circumference of more than 17 centimeters in women and more than 20 centimeters in men.

'If you don't have a tape measure handy, you can measure your wrist by wrapping the thumb and index finger of your other hand.' – advises Artem Opalnitsky. – If one finger overlaps the other, you have a narrow spine. If the fingers barely touch, you have an average build, and if there is a small gap between the fingers, you have a wide bone.

What type of exercise is recommended for people with 'wide bones'?

'Research has shown that body type has an influence on the effectiveness and results of training, but the data is inconsistent and depends on the type of physical activity chosen' – explains Julia Fokina. – A recent study found that hypertension works best in sports that require high dynamic balance – the body's ability to remain balanced during movement. These sports include surfing, gymnastics, fencing, horse riding, boxing and other martial arts.

'Physical exercise is useful and effective for all body types, including the 'full' ones, regardless of what someone understands by this term,' explains Julia Fokina. – explains Julia Fokina.

'People with 'narrow' bones are more likely to be thin and go to the gym to gain weight, people with 'wide' bones to lose weight' - comments Artem Opalnitsky. – Training is not much different for these and other people, the most important thing is that you have the right nutrition plan for your goals.

The opinion that 'wide bones' are responsible for obesity is a myth. A hyperstenic girl who sticks to a diet and does a lot of exercise will be slim despite her constitution.

An endomorphic body type affects the way your body looks, but it cannot be an excuse for being overweight. We have already written about how people with different body types can exercise in this article, this article and this article.

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T-criterion and Z-criterion

These two terms are of clinical importance when evaluating the DAX measurement:

• Z-criterion (Z-score): Comparison of the patient's bone density with 'values of a patient of the same gender and age' ('age and gender control')
• T-criterion (T-score): Comparison of the patient's bone density with that of a normal adult (20-30 years) (comparison corresponding to the 'maximum bone density').

Since BMD decreases with age in all areas of the skeleton, all patients over 30 years of age have a lower T-score than Z-score, with the difference increasing with age. By definition, the diagnosis of osteoporosis is based on a T criterion score < -2.5 SD.

The possibilities of MRI are unlimited, the bone structure is clearly visible in the image. However, due to its high cost, this technology is rarely used to determine density.

conclusion

Many methods are currently used to determine bone density. Some tests can be used to diagnose osteoporosis, while others can be used to determine fracture risk and provide early prevention of this insidious disease. It is important to be aware that the bone density parameters determined can vary, so the choice of test location is extremely important!

Remember that osteoporosis can be stopped in its early stages - just take the first step to determine your bone mass!

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Which foods can harm bone health?

You need to plan your diet carefully. The effect of healthy foods can be canceled out by the effects of unhealthy foods - then your bones will not be strengthened. To avoid this, it is a good idea to include:
- Sugar. Its high proportion has a negative effect on the intestinal microflora, which prevents the absorption of minerals.
– Caffeine. Accelerates the excretion of minerals from the body through urine.
– Alcohol. On the one hand, alcohol leads to fluid and salt losses and, on the other hand, has a toxic effect on bone tissue.

Phytic acid also prevents the absorption of minerals. This substance contained in the grain blocks the digestive enzymes. However, this does not mean that the consumption of oatmeal, buckwheat or corn should be banned. Grains are fermented or roasted before consumption to neutralize phytic acid.

Tips for improving bone health

Osteoporosis, in which bone density decreases, doesn't happen overnight.

Therefore, at the first signs, you can take measures to slow down the process:
– Adjust your diet by eating more healthy foods and avoiding unhealthy ones;
- stop smoking
– increase your physical activity, which is good not only for your bones and joints, but also for your entire body;
– See an endocrinologist for hormone replacement therapy (for menopausal women);
– Taking vitamin D and medications that affect phosphorus-calcium metabolism.

In more severe cases, when general advice cannot solve the problem, the doctor prescribes treatment with antiresorptive drugs. These are bisphosphonates (alendronate, ibandronate, risedronate), which slow down bone metabolism and inhibit bone loss.

Importance of hormone replacement therapy for bone tissue

Decreased estrogen levels are a risk factor for osteoporosis. These are female sex hormones that are also found in small quantities in the male body. They are natural antiresorptive agents (that is, substances that prevent bone loss).
In men, the hormonal status remains relatively stable. In women, on the other hand, the amount of estrogen drops sharply with the onset of menopause, so that they are at a higher risk of osteoporosis.
During menopause, bone metabolism accelerates by 30 %. As we age, the rate of tissue repair no longer keeps pace with the rate of tissue breakdown. As a result, the skeleton of women from 60-65 years old becomes very fragile.

Medical reviews of magnesium products

– 'Champions' in magnesium content: rice and wheat bran and dried agar-agar algae. But you won't eat just these as that would lead to deficiencies in other nutrients, says Dr. Maria Gerasimova, nutritionist, pediatric endocrinologist. – Add a variety of seeds (pumpkin seeds, sesame seeds, poppy seeds, flax seeds, sunflower seeds) to salads and baked goods. Take some almonds, hazelnuts or cashews with you as a snack. Add a spoonful of nut paste to oatmeal (instead of butter) or to a sandwich. Replace grains in your diet: buckwheat, amaranth, rice, hercules, whole grain pasta, bulgur, spelt.

Don't forget about legumes: soybeans, green beans, lima beans and other beans, chickpeas.

– The main source of magnesium for the body is, of course, diet – says, among other things. Guzel Likhtina, internist at Biorise Clinic and integrative nutritionist.. – In order to provide it in the right quantity, it is worth enriching the diet with:

• nuts,
• Legumes,
• Cocoa,
• mineral water containing magnesium,
• fresh vegetables, especially green leafy vegetables,
• herbs and algae,
• coarse grain,
• Liver,
• Eggs.

However, nuts and legumes contain phytic acid, which prevents the absorption of micronutrients. To neutralize them, soak these foods in water for 3-4 hours or even overnight before eating.

Unfortunately, if you already have a magnesium deficiency, it is almost impossible to compensate for it with food alone.

– It is important to remember that certain types of grain processing, in which the bran and germ are removed, significantly reduce the magnesium content; It is therefore advisable to choose coarsely ground flour and whole grain products. Anastasia Shustova, Head of the Medical Department, General Practitioner at the MEDSI Kotelniki Clinic. – Magnesium is also found in varying amounts in ordinary water, including tap water, bottled drinking water and mineral water. The amount of magnesium in water depends on the source and brand (it can range from 1 mg/L to over 120 mg/L).

Popular questions and answers

Family doctor Anastasiya Shustova answers questions from KP readers.

How can I tell if my body is deficient in magnesium?

The adult body contains about 25 g of magnesium, of which 50-60 % is in the bones and the rest in the soft tissues. And only less than 1 % of total magnesium is in the blood serum, where its content is strictly controlled by the body.

The most accessible and most commonly used method for reliably determining a magnesium deficiency in the body is serum measurement. The normal serum magnesium concentration is between 0.75 and 1.2 mmol/L. Early symptoms of deficiency include loss of appetite, nausea, fatigue and weakness. If the deficiency worsens, numbness and tingling in the hands and feet, muscle twitching, tremors and convulsions, and irregular heart rhythms may occur. Severe magnesium deficiency can result in hypocalcemia or hypocalcemia (decreased serum calcium or potassium).

Magnesium deficiency, caused by a deficiency in the diet in healthy people, especially when it causes visible symptoms, is rare because the kidneys greatly limit the excretion of this mineral in the urine when its concentration in the body is reduced. However, there are situations in which magnesium deficiency can be significant and symptoms due to magnesium deficiency occur. This is usually due to impaired absorption of magnesium in the intestines, accelerated excretion through the kidneys, alcohol abuse or the use of certain medications. In these cases, it may be necessary to take additional magnesium supplements in consultation with your doctor.

Who is at risk of magnesium deficiency?

People with severe gastrointestinal diseases with chronic diarrhea and malabsorption syndrome (malabsorption of nutrients). These include diseases such as Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, surgical removal of part of the small intestine, gluten enteropathy (celiac disease), chronic pancreatitis and some others.

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